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Koi, the famous colorful carp, are still raised and highly prized, even today.
So this episode we are still talking about the 12th sovereign, Ō Tarashi Hiko Oshiro Wake, aka Keikō Tennō. Only, rather than talk about his supposed military campaigns, we go into some of his more, shall we say, “romantic” episodes. And his behavior in these stories is what prompted the episode title because, well, “no means no” seems to have been a distant concept.
Read moreBronze statue of Yamato Takeru at Kenrokuen in Kanazawa. Built in the Meiji period to memorialize the soldiers who went down to Kyushu to suppress the rebellion of Saigo Takamori and the samurai who were angered by Meiji reforms that would strip them of many of their historical prerogatives. Centuries later, the story of Yamato Takeru continues to resonate.
Conjectural route for Yamato Takeru based on the evidence in the Chronicles. Click to enlarge. Original map by Ash_Crow, CC BY-SA 3.0 via Wikimedia Commons. Modified by author.
This episode we finish up the journey of Yamato Takeru. Many of the people named in this story were previously discussed in Part I, so we won’t go back over them here. We will look at the back end of his journey, including a few of the places that he may have passed along the way. This starts somewhere up in “HItakami” and takes us back to the lands we a perhaps more familiar with.
Niihari - Niihari was one of the areas of Hitachi since before the Taika reforms of 645, according to that province’s Fudoki. It mentions the others as Ubaraki, Naka, Kuji, Taka, and Tsukuba. Only Niihari and Tsukuba are specifically mentioned by Yamato Takeru, however. The name Niihari (aka Nihihari or Nihibari) is found in the region around Mt. Tsukuba, today, but the description in the eight century Hitachi Fudoki seems to indicate the area just northwest of Mt. Tsukuba. It defines the western border as the Keno River—aka Kinugawa—and the eastern border as the mountains, at the southern end of which you’ll find Mt. Tsukuba. The northern border was the border of Kenu—aka Shimōtsuke no Kuni—and the southern border was an area known as Shirakabe.
The twin peaks of Mt. Tsukuba.
Mt. Tsukuba - This location is much more well known. Mt. Tsukuba is actually one of the famous mountains of Japan—it is considered one of the 100 famous peaks, and even has particular stories that connect it to Mt. Fuji. You see, where as Mt. Fuji is the tallest peak in Japan, at 3,776m, with a gray, rocky peak, Mt. Tsukuba is just under 890m tall, with two peaks—871m and 877m, to be exact. In fact, it is one of the easier peaks to climb, if that is something you would like to do—or you can cheat and take the funicular up to the top.
In the Hitachi Fudoki, there is a story of kami that was roaming through the land. As night fell, he came upon Mt. Fuji, and asked the kami of Mt. Fuji if he could take shelter there for the night. The kami of Mt. Fuji refused, however, because they were observing a period of abstinence for the new crops, and during that time they could not allow anyone to enter. The wander kami was upset at such a lack of hospitality, and so cursed Mt. Fuji to be out of reach, and for snow to fall on its peak in any season, and for the mountaintop to be barren.
This kami then came to Tsukuba in Hitachi. There, he also asked for shelter, and the kami of Mt. Tsukuba replied that even though they, too, were observing a period of abstinence, they would make an exception. And so the wandering kami blessed Mt. Tsukuba, and ever since the peak has been accessible and people have regularly gathered to sing and celebrate.
Perhaps unsurprisingly there is a shrine at the base of the mountain, and that shrine has a very unique set of guardian statues out in front: Toyoki Iribiko and Yamato Takeru. Toyoki Iribiko, you may recall, was the son of Mimaki Iribiko, aka Sujin Tennō, and he was one of two sons who were candidates for eventually inheriting the throne. However, due to his dream, which saw him at the top of Mt. Miwa swinging sword and spear to the east, he was sent out to Kenu, and there is a tradition that says he visited Mt. Tsukuba as well.
Ashigara Pass - This is the pass through the mountains between the ancient countries of Suruga and Sagami—now the border between Shizuoka and Kanagawa prefectures. There area of Ashigara lies just north of the beautiful hot spring resort town of Hakone, and to the east of the pass lies the formidable and iconic Mt. Fuji. As with many places in Japan, the contours of the land have created their own natural pathways that people have been using for centuries, and even today there are roads that wind through the pass from one side to the other. That said, if the area is remembered for anything other than the views of Mt. Fuji, it is probably not our protagonist, Yamato Takeru. Rather it is likely a more local figure, Sakata no Kintoki, a warrior from the Heian era, more popularly known as Kintarō. Of course, Kintarō is said to be his name when he was a young boy, and you may have seen him depicted in a large, one-piece outfit of a red fundoshi, or loincloth, and bib, usually with the character for “KIN” 「金」 on it in gold and carrying an axe. Of course, this is all a much later folk hero, but his connection to the region is much stronger.
View of Mt. Fuji from a mountain on the northern edge of modern Kōfu City
Sakaori - Today, the area of Sakaori is simply a part of the larger area of modern Kōfu city, the old capital of the ancient country of Kai. This area, north of Mt. Fuji, is extremely mountainous. While no doubt daunting in ancient times, especially before roads and maps were more common, the mountains also provided a kind of isolation and security. The sengoku warlord, Takeda Shingen, no doubt counted on the security those mountains provided when he refused to build a castle like other daimyō did at that tumultuous time. It is no doubt easy to “make men your castle, men your walls, men your moats” when you live in a remote and easily defensible location.
Of course, it wasn’t just the Takeda who found it hospitable. The plain on which Kōfu city sits has been inhabited since the Jōmon times. Though we don’t know a lot about who was there when Yamato Takeru supposedly stopped at the palace of Sakaori and traded poems with the fire-keeper there, it was no doubt doing well for itself.
Usui Tōge and the Japan Alps - Usui Pass was the ancient pass to the country or region of Shinano, an area in the middle of the mountainous region of central Honshū. The ranges here are known as the “Japan Alps”, although technically they are divided into three groups of mountain ranges. It wasn’t until relatively modern times that there was anything like a complete map of all of the various rivers and valleys throughout this region. Those who wandered off the well-worn trails could be lost in the mountains, and so it is no wonder that living off the land and being able to find one’s way through successfully was considered such a skill.
A jigokudani, or Hell Valley, at Tateyama, one of the taller peaks in the Japanese alps.
The mountains here are still volcanically active, and there are numerous hot springs as well as the jigoku dani. These are areas, often depressions in the landscape, where volcanic gasses spill out of crevices in the earth. While they may be the same forces that heat the natural hot springs across Japan, those poisonous vapors, which are often heavier than air, can gather in depressions, and may kill off much of the plant and animal life nearby. And while the steam rising up from the vents may be a visible indication, especially in the winter, as it cools, the gasses themselves are invisible to the naked eye, and one may not even know that they are in danger until it is too late. There may be a sulfurous, or “rotten egg”, smell, but there could also be pockets of high concentrations of carbon dioxide gas. While naturally occurring, too much carbon dioxide can cause a person to quickly asphyxiate in higher concentrations. Today we are well aware of the dangers, and most jigoku dani have signs, warning tourists of the dangers, but back in ancient times there were no signs to warn travelers of the dangers.
Owari - We touched on Owari on the trip out, and I want to note it again, because it is here that Yamato Takeru leaves the sword Kusanagi. This is significant, because this is also the home of Atsuta Jingū, the shrine that is said to house the sacred blade, even today.
The haiden, or prayer hall, of Atsuta Jingū in 2006. Many of the buildings are now roofed in bronze, rather than the more traditional thatch. This was considered more economical, especially during WWII. The shrine is in Nagoya, which was a target of the allies, and many of the shrines buildings were destroyed and rebuilt in 1955.
It is unclear just what the sword looks like, though there are conjectural drawings. This is explained by its sacred nature—it is kept at the shrine except when it is needed for the enthronement ceremony, at which time the box it is kept in is brought out—but that is a rare event. I’m not even sure if the emperor looks at the sword, or if it is enough that the boxes are there. In fact, during some periods in history, when the regalia were split between competing lines, there were enthronements that took place with only the empty boxes, which effectively stood in for the objects themselves.
It is likely a straight blade, sharpened on both edges. Of course, due to its nature, it is highly doubtful that anyone will be closely examining the sword any time soon to confirm its age or even if it is a copy of a sword from a particular era. For most it is enough that it exists.
Mt. Ibuki - Situated between the countries of Mino and Ōmi, now the border of modern Gifu and Shiga Prefectures, Mt. Ibuki overlooks the natural pass between these two areas. At the eastern foot of the mountain is the site of the famous battle of Sekigahara, which would be a decisive victory for Tokugawa Ieyasu as he brought the country under his rule, but for Yamato Takeru, this was anything but a success.
Given ts location between the two areas, one is left to wonder if there isn’t another meaning. Perhaps Yamato Takeru—or the warrior whose story this part of the legend is modeled on, was attempting to cross the pass into Ōmi, only to find himself defeated and turned back. Whatever the real story, this is clearly where Yamato Takeru’s fortunes take a turn for the worse.
Isame - Also “Wisame” in the old phonology. This is said to be the location of the clear spring where Yamato Takeru took a rest and his mind was cleared. Of course, the location identified today seems a bit out of the way from Ibuki proper, but so be it. Other locations mentioned in the Chronicles would seem to be in Mino, Owari, and down to Ise.
Nobono Plain - This is as far as our hero got and, spoiler alert, where he is said to have perished, and where his kofun is said to have been built. While it is unlikely that the person buried here is actually the person who did all the things that are claimed in the Chronicles, he was probably someone of import. And, his kofun was late enough that it actually had true haniwa, the cylindrical clay stands that would be placed over most kofun from the 4th century onward.
Most people, when they hear about haniwa, are thinking about the later statues of houses, people, boats and other such things that give us such a great insight into the life of people in the later kofun period. However, early on, these were still relatively simple, and even as the shapes began to flourish the cylindrical haniwa continued to be used, often as the stands for these figured clay statues.
Examples of the round clay cylinders, from which haniwa get their names, at the Tokyo National Museum.
The earliest decorations, as we’ve noted, appear to have been simple jar stands, with offering jars that sat on top. These cylindrical stands may have held a similar purpose, but their shape allowed them to be sunk into the ground, and the pots and vessels placed on top could be shaped to slot into their open mouths. Over time, those vessels took on different shapes, including umbrellas, houses, etc. Still, it seems it took some time before the figures we often think of were prevalent. Even then, there were regional differences and styles.
And, of course, there is the problem of survivorship bias, as many haniwa are not found intact, but rather are simply scattered sherds of broken pottery. Much like paleontologists working from scraps of bone, archaeologists may only have these broken pieces to try to compare to others and hopefully figure out what type of haniwa were present when a kofun was built. This, in turn, can give us valuable insights into when the kofun was built as well as what kinds of regional influences may have been present as well. All this helps build a better understanding of what was actually going on outside of the legendary stories of the royal line.
Ō, Yasumaro, & Heldt, G. (2014). The Kojiki: An account of ancient matters. ISBN978-0-231-16389-7
Bentley, John. (2006). The Authenticity of Sendai Kuji Hongi: a New Examination of Texts, with a Translation and Commentary. ISBN-90-04-152253
Naumann, Nelly (1992). ‘The “Kusanagi” Sword’. Nenrin-Jahresringe: Festgabe für Hans A. Dettmer. Ed. Klaus Müller. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 1992. [158]–170. https://freidok.uni-freiburg.de/fedora/objects/freidok:4635/datastreams/FILE1/content
Chamberlain, B. H. (1981). The Kojiki: Records of ancient matters. Rutland, Vt: C.E. Tuttle Co. ISBN4-8053-0794-3
Aston, W. G. (1972). Nihongi, chronicles of Japan from the earliest times to A.D. 697. London: Allen & Unwin. ISBN0-80480984-4
Philippi, D. L. (1968). Kojiki. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press. ISBN4-13-087004-1
Prince Yamato Takeru with the royal sword, Kusanagi, on the burning plain, by the late Edo period artist, Utagawa Kuniyoshi. The fanciful depiction, with a mixture of Chinese and Japanese characteristics, is far from an accurate portrayal of the times, and yet fits perfectly with the legendary stories set in the early Chronicles.
Prince Yamato Takeru, sometimes called Yamatodake, is perhaps one of the most famous characters in the Chronicles, and almost certainly not a real figure. At the very least not a single figure—he may be a conglomeration of various individuals and the stories of their feats. And yet that hardly matters as his legend is enough.
Before we get into everything, though, a quick language lesson. Yamato Takeru’s name is given as O’usu, meaning “little mortar”. His twin brother is Ō’usu, meaning big mortar. Of course, to most English speakers—and even many Japanese—the difference between these two names, today, is minimal. Originally, they were likely something like Wo’usu and Opo’usu, which at least provides greater distinction, but in modern Japanese it is just the difference of a short “o” sound v. a long “o” sound—that is long as in how long you hold the vowel, not in its actual sound. A short “o” is just like it seems, but a long “o” is like saying “o” twice, but without any stops in between. This works in Japanese because it works on a morae system, where each sound takes rouhgly the same amount of “time” to say, whereas English breaks on syllables, instead. For more on how this looks, you can look into Japanese On, or Onji, used to count sounds for Japanese poetry.
Now this episode we cover roughly three parts of Yamato Takeru’s life: His early childhood and the admonition of his brother, his campaign in the west, against the Kumaso and his return trip, and then his trip out east to subdue the Emishi. Of these, I’ll provide a map of the eastern campaign—the campaign west does not have as many details, and those we have are more contradictory.
Ōtarashi Hiko - Also known as Keikō Tennō. He is the sovereign, and Yamato Takeru’s father. In the Kojiki, he is a passive figure, ruling from Yamato and sending Yamato Takeru out to fight and conquer the land. In the Nihon Shoki he is much more active, but not, it seems, in the stories about Yamato Takeru, himself. In many ways, there is little to concretely connect the lives of Yamato Takeru and Ōtarashi Hiko beyond the assertion that they are father and son. There is even information that would seem to indicate that Ōtarashi Hiko married Yamato Takeru’s great-granddaughter. I mean, sure, we know that they liked to keep it in the family, but that seems more than a little ridiculous. This is furthered by the fact that Yamato Takeru is often referred to with words that seem to otherwise be reserved for a sovereign, as are his wives. Finally, there is the fact that Chūai Tennō, aka Tarashi Nakatsu Hiko, the 14th sovereign, was Yamato Takeru’s son, and not descended from Waka Tarashi Hiko, aka Seimu Tennō, the 13th sovereign. But we’ll talk more about that, later.
A Meiji era depiction of a young Yamato Takeru, dressed as a woman and infiltrating the celebration of the Kumaso Braves. A Meiji era print by the artist Tsukioka Yoshitoshi (1839-1892).
Prince O’usu, aka Yamato Takeru - The “Little Mortar” prince, also named Yamato no Oguna. Our main protagonist. He is shown to have a special relationship with Yamato Hime, of Ise Shrine, and he defeats his enemies often with trickery and deceit as much as his raw strength. He is shown as arrogant and prideful, even defeating various deities, not just the local human chieftains. His feats are often given with supernatural and epic detail, while at the same time eschewing many of the more mundane details that would help us to better place the action in context. This is part of what makes his tale seem so fanciful, even in the midst of this period of oral history.
The appellation “Takeru”, sometimes rendered simply as “Take”, is found in many places throughout the chronicles, even in the names of various sovereigns. The character used for this is 「武」, which is also pronounced “BU” and means “martial”, as in the words “bugei” or “budō” (martial arts). We see it in the forms of “Kumaso Takeru” and “Izumo Takeru”, indicating that it was much more of a title, indicating a strong warrior, and not simply a name.
Prince Ō’usu - Yamato Takeru’s twin brother. He was probably the second one out of the womb, thus gaining the term “Ō”, or “Big” in his name vice Yamato Takeru’s “O”, or “Little”. Second out meant he was “higher” in the womb, according to the ancient theories, and thus he would have been considered the senior prince.
He was disobedient, and when he was sent to go bring back the two most beautiful women of Mino for his father he tried to swap them out, and keep them for himself. Later, he refused to come to inner, which was a ceremonial slap in the face to his father. The Kojiki claims that he was killed by Yamato Takeru, ambushed in a privy, but in the Nihon Shoki he was sent t o govern Mino, likely as punishment for his cowardice when he would not take his troops to subdue the East.
Ihoki Iribiko - Another of Ōtarashi Hiko’s children. Very little is said about him other than the fact that he, along with Waka Tarashi HIko and Yamato Takeru, was one of the three sons considered as potential heirs to the throne.
Waka Tarashi HIko - Also known as Seimu Tennō, we’ll talk more about him in the future. Of the three potential heirs, he was the one who would go forward and ascend the throne. It seems odd, then, that we hear of his brother’s accomplishments, not his own.
Yamato Hime - You should remember Yamato Hime from the time of Ikume Iribiko, the previous sovereign. She is credited with the founding of Ise Shrine. Of course, there are some questions about that, and in particular I wonder if this is actually supposed to be the same person. Nihon Shoki dates, which we’ve already discussed are clearly unreliably, well they provide dates that would put Yamato Hime well past her hundredth year by the time she’s helping Yamato Takeru. Again, it is possible that her name is actually a title of some sort, and that there were various women known as “Yamato Hime” who were head of Ise Shrine. Or she could be an insert character to explain Ise Shrine’s founding.
Kumaso Takeru - The Brave(s) of Kumaso. Also known as Kawakami no Takeru. The Kojiki refers to an elder and younger, while the Nihon Shoki makes it seem as though it is just one. The basics of the story remain the same, however.
Ya Nushi Oshio-dake Ogoro - A minor character in our narrative. He is sent down to Ki to perform the rituals that the sovereign would otherwise have done—though it is unclear to me if he got much beyond the southern Nara Basin. More interesting is that his son, Takechi Sukune, seems to be a person of some importance in the court.
Takechi Sukune - The son of Ya Nushi Oshio-dake Ogoro. “Sukune” is a title of significant rank in the court, and this seems to be further emphasized by his relationship with Waka Tarashi Hiko when they both go on “guard” for the court during a weeklong banquet. He is also the one to first go out to the north and the east. It makes me wonder if some of the stories about Yamato Takeru’s campaign weren’t originally part of a story about Takechi Sukune. It is interesting, but not telling, that the characters used for his name, Takechi, are “武内“ (Brave + Inside). That first character is the same as “Takeru”, but then, it is the same character found in so many other names.
Misuki Tomo Mimi Take Hiko - (御友耳建日子) Only mentioned in the Kojiki, and just briefly, in regards to the wooden spear and told to accompany Yamato Takeru on his eastern expedition. He is mentioned as an ancestor of the Kibi no Omi, making me wonder if this might not be another name for Kibi no Take Hiko, another companion of Yamato Takeru, mentioned in the Nihon Shoki.
Ōtomo no Take Hi no Muraji - Another one of the companions of Yamato Takeru. There is little more about him.
Nanatsukahagi - Ancestor of the Kume no Atahe who is said to have traveled with Yamato Takeru everywhere he went, even up to the bitter end.
Susano’o - Broth of Amaterasu, who slayed the eight headed serpent, Yamata no Orochi, and found the sword Ame no Murakumo, later known as Kusanagi.
Miyazu Hime - Ancestor of the Kuni no Miyatsuko of Owari and the fiancée of Yamato Takeru. I can’t help but wonder if she was the daughter of or the actual chieftain of Owari, or at least some part of it, but either way it would seem to speak to more marriage politics. It is also telling that the sword, Kusanagi, would eventually be deposited and kept at Atsuta Shrine, where it (or a copy) is said to be kept event to this day. Atsuta Shrine is near the harbor of modern Nagoya city.
Oto-Tachibana Hime - Yamato Takeru’s “queen” who throws herself into the waters to calm them down at the mouth of Tokyo Bay. Her sudden appearance suggests that she may be a later addition to the stories, or at the very least out of place. This could also be one of those areas where different stories are being merged together. There is another individual, Ō-Tachibana Hime (or, originally, “Opo-Tatibana-pime”), mentioned in the Hitachi Fudoki as Yamato Takeru’s wife. It is said that she came out to see him while he was on campaign. Of course, that was after the incident at Tokyo Bay, so the timeline is still a bit confused.
Emishi - （蝦夷）Often “Yemishi” prior to the modern Japanese pronunciation. These are the “barbarians” in the northeast. It is unclear if, at this time, they were a single ethnic group. It is clear in later centuries that they were pretty much anyone outside of the Yamato court’s control. Of course, in the early 4th century, pretty much everyone was “outside” the Yamato court’s control. It is quite likely that the term “Emishi” is an anachronism, contemporary to the 8th century, but not the 4th.
We could go through the Western Campaign against the Kumaso, but there aren’t many details, as I mentioned. There is at least one that we should probably go over though:
Ana Umi - This is the “Sea” that would have made Kojima a real island, back in the day. If you take a look at the area between Kurashiki and Minami Ward (Minami-Ku) you can see how much of that area would have been under water with just slightly higher sea levels (or if the land still wasn’t quite as silted up as it became). As noted in the podcast this is much like the way “Kawachi Bay” silted up over in the area of modern Ōsaka.
Conjectural route for Yamato Takeru based on the evidence in the Chronicles. Click to enlarge. Original map by Ash_Crow, CC BY-SA 3.0 via Wikimedia Commons. Modified by author.
The rest of these will be part of the Eastern Campaign. I put together a general map of Yamato Takeru’s potential route. This episode we will follow the blue route. The assumption here is, of course, largely land based until Tokyo Bay, but it could just as easily have been that the initial troop movements would have been using ships, hugging the coastline. Assuming Miyazu Hime’s home was somewhere near Atsuta Shrine, that would have been on or near the shore, as is Yaizu.
Yamato/Miwa - We should have a good idea of where this is at this point.
Ise Grand Shrine - The sight of the Ise Shrine, where Yamato Takeru gets the sword from Yamato Hime
Owari (Palace of Miyazu Hime) - Yamato Takeru stops at Owari—likely modern Nagoya city. Here is where Yamato Takeru pledges he will marry Miyazu Hime.
Azuma -（東国）Literally the “Eastern Country”, this is the name for the area that we generally think of as the Kantō—primarily the regions around modern Tōkyō, though there wasn’t a firm border and it was more of a general description than a specific country.
Yaizu - （焼津） Known in the Chronciles as Yaketsu. This is thought to be the same place. This is where Yamato Takeru destroyed those who had tried to set the field on fire around him. This is also where the sword, Kusanagi, gets its name.
Hashirimizu - （走水）On the peninsula here you can still visit Hashirimizu Beach. “Hashirimizu” literally means “running water” refers to the fast running water that made the crossing so dangerous.
Awa Harbor - This seems to be the general name for the Tōkyō Bay.
Awa - （安房国）This is the tip of the Bōsō (房総) Peninsula. The peninsula is actually so-named because it combines the name of Awa (安房) and Fusa (総).
Fusa - （総国）This is the country that would later become the provinces of Shimōsa（下総）and Kazusa（上総）—literally “lower” and “upper” Fusa.
Tama no Ura -（玉之浦）Along with Ashi no Ura, it defines a large area of shoreline on the Pacific coast between Shimōsa, up to Kazusa.
Take no Minato -（竹水門）The harbor (“water gate”) where Yamato Takeru encountered the Emishi. Thought to be up somewhere in Tōhoku.
Hitakami -（日高見国）Probably somewhere in Tōhoku, but it is unclear exactly where. It is named as a country, but it doesn’t seem to have been directly preserved in any of the later province names. Later, a place in Hokkaidō would be named “Hidaka” (日高) in memory of this country, but there is no historical connection and the exact location is still a mystery.
We’ll hit the rest of the eastern campaign next episode, but for now, this is it. Thank you for reading and I hope that this has been informative.
Ō, Yasumaro, & Heldt, G. (2014). The Kojiki: An account of ancient matters. ISBN978-0-231-16389-7
Bentley, John. (2006). The Authenticity of Sendai Kuji Hongi: a New Examination of Texts, with a Translation and Commentary. ISBN-90-04-152253
Chamberlain, B. H. (1981). The Kojiki: Records of ancient matters. Rutland, Vt: C.E. Tuttle Co. ISBN4-8053-0794-3
Aston, W. G. (1972). Nihongi, chronicles of Japan from the earliest times to A.D. 697. London: Allen & Unwin. ISBN0-80480984-4
Philippi, D. L. (1968). Kojiki. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press. ISBN4-13-087004-1
19th century drawing of the 12th sovereign, known to us as Keikō Tennō.
This episode we start to wind down the 3rd Century and begin our trip into the 4th with Keiko—aka Ōtarashi Hiko Oshiro Wake no Mikoto. Most of our information on this sovereign actually comes from sources outside of the Kojiki, which has only a passing entry for this sovereign, focusing instead on the romantic hero, Yamato Takeru. Our other sources, though, have a fair amount to go by, though even then we are still working off of mostly what we can only assume is oral tradition.
Cllick to enlarge. Original map by Ash_Crow, CC BY-SA 3.0 via Wikimedia Commons. Modified by author.
This map gives a rough idea of the possible route described in the Chronicles, assuming placenames are correct. It is not exact, and the borders are based on later province boundaries, which may not match up exactly with the territories of the ancient countries, which may have been more like collections of city-states without well-defined borders as we might think of them. In addition, it is unclear if there was any central authority or if it was simply a collection of alliances—as noted, there is no good evidence for any truly hierarchical relationships at this stage. That said, the areas of Tsukushi and Toyo, including Ōita, were areas that showed political activity in the Yayoi and into the Kofun period. Furthermore, at the Saitobaru Kofun Group (“7” on the map), we do have evidence of kofun building from at least the 3rd century. So it fits with our timeline, and there may even be some evidence of fighting at some of the locations mentioned, though it is hard to exactly pinpoint when, let alone whether or not it was connected by an invading force from Yamato.
Since we are talking about military engagements, it is good to get an idea of the weapons and armor of this time. It seems clear that there were iron swords of various types available, but iron armor seems new. There may have been some iron armor sent in the 3rd century with requests to the Wei and Jin courts, but if so, I’m not sure that it has been verified. Of the armor we do have, it seems to date to the early 4th century. It is often called a tankō (短甲), though that is not how it would have been referred to at the time, and simply means “short armor”. Some have challenged this term, and instead refer to it simply as an iron cuirass of vertical plates. These early body armors were likely held on with straps at the shoulders and otherwise secured at the hips. It is not an uncommon shape for torso protection across the world, and a similar design is seen in different cultures at different times.
Prior to this, we have only limited armor styles, primarily made out of organic material—in this case wood. Wood, even lacquered, is not going to last long in acidic soil, and so it is unsurprising that so little has survived. These pieces, centuries apart and quite different, don’t give us enough to really know what was going on with armor development, other than the briefest glimpse. Did these wooden armors continue, dwindling as iron armors came into use? Or was there something else entirely? Functionally, the 2nd century armor seems similar to the 4th century example, and it would not be hard to imagine armors of wooden vertical slats similar to the iron construction, or even more elaborate wooden armors, similar to later iron models. Unfortunately, unless we find more examples, it will be hard to say for certain.
Early 4th century armor, similar to those found in Gaya. Photo taken by author at the Tokyo National Museum.
2nd century wooden armor. In shape it shares many characteristics with later iron armors, but it is much more elaborate and includes two large “wings” on the back. Photo by author at the National Museum of Japanese History.
This armor comes from fragments from the 3rd C BCE. It is a simple set of wooden plates laced together. It is unclear how long this kind of armor continued to be in use, but it seems a far cry from the solid armors of later. Photo by author at the National Museum of Japanese History in Sakura.
Here we will talk about some of the figures in the story so you can try to keep them straight.
Ōtarashi Hiko Oshiro Wake no Mikoto - The 12th sovereign of Yamato, son of Ikume Iribiko. He is our main protagonist in this campaign. Aka Keikō Tennō
Take Morogi - One of Ōtarashi Hiko’s advanced scouts, sent ahead to see what there was in the land. He came up with the plan to defeat the brigands in Toyo.
Kamuhashi Hime - Recognized in the Chronicles as the ruler of her country, which would appear to be Toyo. She presents herself with all the trappings of a sovereign, just like Yamato—the sword, the mirror, and the magatama, all hung up in the branches she affixed to the front of her boat. She told the Yamato forces about the brigands in her area. Her home was at a place called Nagao—possibly Yukuhashi City.
Hanatari, Mimitari, Asahagi, and Tsuchiori-iori - The four brigand leaders of Toyo. They each lived at the headwaters (kawakami) of different areas: Usa, Mike, Takawa, and Midorino. Of those, Usa, is perhaps the most prominent, being the home of Usa Shrine. They are accused of taking on “unauthorized titles” and giving out chieftainships to their family members.
Haya tsu Hime - The Lady of Haya. She is not accorded the same status as Kamuhashi Hime, but seems to function in a similar role. Her home is Hayami, in “Ōgita”, which was later “Ōita”. She tells the Yamato forces about the Tsuchigumo up in the hills of Negino.
Ao and Shiro - Literally “Blue” and “White”, these are the names of two of the Tsuchigumo who live with their followers in caves in the country of Ōita.
Uchizaru, Yata, and Kunimaro - The three Tsuchigumo that live around Mt. Negi and Negi moor (Negino), in the western areas of modern Ōita Prefecture. After Yata is killed, Uchizaru and his forces commit suicide rather than let themselves be killed by the Yamato forces.
Atsu Kaya and Sa Kaya - The two leaders of the Kumaso. Sometimes called the Kumaso Takeru, or Kumaso Braves.
Ichifu Kaya and Ichi Kaya - Two daughters of one of the Kumaso leaders. Ichifu Kaya eventually betrays her father and he is killed. In the end, she, herself, is put to death for this unfilial act. Ichi Kaya goes off to marry the Kuni no Miyatsuko of Ki no Kuni.
Izumi Hime - Lord of the country of Murokata. This is thought to be there area around Kirishima, though I would note there is also an “Izumi” on the shores of the Yatsushiro Sea. She meets the Yamato forces north of Hinamori Peak, an area known today as Kobayashi.
Hinamori the Elder and Hinamori the Younger - Two members of Ōtarashi Hiko’s retinue. It is unclear if they are from Yamato or if they were local lords in the area of Hinamori, modern Kobayashi. They don’t show up except in that part of the narrative.
Kuma tsu Hiko the Elder and Kuma tsu Hiko the Younger - A pair of “princes” of “Kuma” It is not entirely clear if they are considered Kumaso—their names are more titles than name, and little can really be gleaned form jsut what is in the chronicles
Tsudzura - A Tsuchigumo in the land of Tamakina, in Hi no Kuni—modern Tamana city. He was killed by the Yamato soldiers.
Kumaso - A group of people living in Southern Kyūshū—possibly throughout the entire island. Believed to possibly be two groups, the Kuma and the So. “Kuma” is still a common element in placenames in southern Kyūshū, including Kumamoto Prefecture. All DNA and linguistic evidence points to them being a Wa people distinct from, but similar too, the people in Yamato.
Hayato - Another group of people living in Southern Kyūshū, similar but distinct from the Kumaso—maybe. At least in the later centuries they are treated as distinct.
Tsuchigumo - It is unclear exactly what is meant by this term, other than a people outside of Yamato without an otherwise clean designation. It is used for groups in Yamato, in Kyūshū, as well as over in the Kantō and Tōhoku regions. Some have suggested they were remnants of Jōmon populations still living in the islands, but there is no evidence of that, and they could easily be Wa people who have adapted to a different sytle of life, living more in caves and pit dwellings than the later Yayoi and early Kofun Wa people.
Suwo/Suō (周防国) - An old country/province on the Seto Inland Sea coast, just east of Nagato. Today it is part of eastern Yamaguchi Prefecture. The name persists in the name of Hōfu City (防府市), which seems to indicate the old government seat of Suō, near the Saba River. Indeed, there is evidence of the old provincial capital and numerous kofun in the area.
Toyo (豊国) - This country likely spanned across much of modern Ōita Prefecture and parts of eastern Fukuoka prefecture, covering the northeast quadrant of Kyūshū. It was later broken up into Front and Back Toyo: Buzen (豊前) and Bungo (豊後).
Himuka/Hyūga (日向国) - The ancient country (and later, province) that covered much of modern Miyazaki Prefecture. This area played a special part in the early foundation myths of the Yamato Royal line, and there are many places connected to the early stories of Yamato and the Heavenly Rock Cave found in this area, today.
Murokata (諸縣) - Apparently a district, country, or area in the middle of Himuka, today it signifies a district from modern Kirishima, north to the border of Miyazaki Prefecture.
Hi (肥国) - The Nihon Shoki says that his was named the “Fire Country” and relates numerous fire-related phenomena. It is interesting, however, that the word for fire, “Hi” seems to be the same as the word for sun, “Hi”, and I can’t help but wonder if there isn’t some connection between the two. The country of Hi would eventually be broken up into Hizen (肥前) and Higo (肥後).
Tsukushi (筑紫国) - Tsukushi is the name sometimes used to refer to the entire island of Kyūshū, in which case it is more properly “Tsukushi-no-shima”, and sometimes it is used to refer to the areas of modern Fukuoka and Saga as “Tsukushi-no-kuni”. This is the area where much of the later administration of the remote provinces of the island would take place, housed at the Dazaifu, a second capital for overseeing the frontier and the trade with the mainland. That was still some years out, however. For our purposes, we will simply skirt the southern and eastern edge of the country. Later it would be split up in Chikuzen (筑前) and Chikugo (筑後).
Welcome to Sengoku Daimyo’s Chronicles of Japan. My name is Joshua, and this is Episode 33: Keiko’s Kumaso Campaign.
This episode, we are moving on to the third of what we can maybe refer to as the Miwa sovereigns: Mimaki Iribiko, Ikume Iribiko, and now Oho-Tarashi Hiko, known today as Keikou Tennou. Name-wise, you can see some patterns, because the next three will be Waka-Tarashi Hiko, Tarashi-Nakatsu Hiko, and Okinaga Tarashi Hime. There seems to be some debate over the exact meaning of “Tarashi”, but it does appear to mark a hereditary lineage—whether that lineage was actual or massaged by the various Chroniclers.
The Nihon Shoki opens this reign in the year 71 and ends it around the year 130, with the sovereign reigning some 60 years. More likely, though, this all takes place some time in the late 3rd century and early 4th, but we won’t get any events we can check against other records for at least another several reigns, so we are still in that “Dark” period of Japanese history, where our only source of guiding light is the Chronicles and archaeology.
What we do read at this time gives us an idea, though, that the country still wasn’t settled under any one particular ruler. In fact, Oho Tarashi’s reign would be dominated by his wars both in Kyushu and in the Kanto and up to the Tohoku regions, indicating that they were still quite independent of Yamato, though of course that isn’t quite how it comes across in the Chronicles. These wars gained him some notoriety, as events of his reign are recalled not just in the official histories, but also in the Fudoki, the local gazetteers that were ordered in the 8th century, where Oho Tarashi is mentioned even more than his predecessors. I find this telling, as these documents often contain tidbits that aren’t necessarily found elsewhere in the records. That could be a red flag—additions biased towards local politics and tradition—or it could be indications that they had access to other records, stories, etc. We’ll be adding the stories to the mix as it makes sense and hopefully that will help.
One more curious note before we dive into everything—we really have two major stories of conquest. In the Nihon Shoki we get both the conquests of Oho Tarashi Hiko, but also of his son—one of the more famous princes in the Chronicles, Wo’usu no Mikoto, more commonly known as Yamatodake or Yamato Takeru, the Brave of Yamato. We’ll devote the entire next episode to Yamato Takeru, but in summary, he in many ways defined the early cultural imaginary of the warrior. He was strong and merciless and intelligent. His stratagems were hardly what one would consider orthodox, even in later times, but one could not refute the results. And, like Icarus, he warns us against pride, and is the first in a long line of tragic heroes lionized throughout Japanese history. In fact, his story is so powerful, that in the Kojiki it overshadows almost everything else about this period. Truly, the authors of the Kojiki would have us believe that this should have been the reign of Yamato Takeru, not Oho Tarashi, for he was the true actor. Today, we are left with questions, chief among them: Did Yamato Takeru even exist, and if so, can we really attribute all of these accounts to him? Was he perhaps an aggregate of various stories, where the hero is simply given as a “Brave of Yamato”? Or is there something else going on? We’ll take a look at this as we examine this period, but also try to better understand what it means for our study of history.
But for now, in this episode, let’s look at the other conquest story and the life of sovereign #12, Oho Tarashi Hiko Oshiro Wake no Mikoto, aka Keikou Tennou. This account will mostly be from the Nihon Shoki, with some tidbits from the Fudoki and others as appropriate.
We already know something of Oho Tarashi Hiko’s origin story. He was a son of Ikume Iribiko and Hibasu Hime, Ikume’s wife after the tragic affair with Saho Hime and her brother. Interestingly, Homutsu Wake, Saho Hime’s son who we discussed previously, seems to have not been even considered for the position of Crown Prince—perhaps for his lack of speaking ability and implied mental immaturity, but it is never even raised. Rather it is Oho Tarashi Hiko and his brother, Inishiki Hiko, who seem to be offered the chance to take on the royal dignity of Yamato, and it is only Oho Tarashi Hiko that takes it.
Of course, we could look at this in a slightly different light. Given what we know of paired rulers, where one was responsible for the spiritual and the other seems to have been responsible for the martial, could that have been happening here? After all, Inishiki *was* given mastery of Isonokami shrine, while Oho Tarashi Hiko, well… we’ll get to that.
Remember, Yamato may have ties to Izumo, Kibi, and Koshi, but their rule is far from absolute. There are apparently others claiming that they are the true kings of the Wa, and possibly even keeping the Seto Inland Sea trade to themselves, controlling the straits of Shimonoseki. Of course, the Chronicles only take the faintest nod at such disunity, indicating only that there were still those who resisted the royal authority, and often acting as if the Yamato kings were already the natural rulers of the entire archipelago by divine right. Therefore, if any opposed them, it was as if they were opposing the natural order of things. The royal forces weren’t sent out to “conquer” land, according to the royal narrative—how could they be? That would imply that the land did not already belong to Yamato, regardless of what the people living on it might have to say about that. This despite the fact that they’ve already acknowledged that there were other Divine Descendants in the world, who would theoretically have had just as strong a celestial claim to rule as the descendants of Ninigi no Mikoto
Unfortunately, we only have one lineage that we are given in any detail, so we’ll have to see what we can see of the rest of the archipelago, even if just through that limited frame.
So Oho Tarashi Hiko Oshiro Wake, son of Ikume Iribiko, was promised the Royal Dignity by his father, but he didn’t just get the throne right away. In fact, it was some time after that before he was finally made Crown Prince, which was his position until his father passed away. It seems there wasn’t really much of a tradition of abdication at this point, something that we will see later on, though presumably he had already been working in the court of his father in one way or another, working to help run the fledgling state.
When he did take the throne there is an interesting note in the Nihon Shoki—they say that there was “kaigen”, or in the words of Aston, “the chronological epoch was altered accordingly.” Of course, for many students of Japanese history, this is a familiar tradition—in fact, we only recently entered the Reiwa era with the enthronement of the most recent emperor. And it is the case that our early dates are all relative to the reigning sovereign, though typically it is expressed as a given year in the reign of the prince of such-and-such palace—or at least that is what we dsee in the Fudoki and the Kujiki.
The era names, or “Nengo” that really define later Japanese date systems, won’t come about for another four and a half centuries—around 645, and the next time we see this term, “kaigen”, isn’t until the entry for 650, when the Hakuchi era replaces “Taika” during the reign of Kotoku.
I assume this is just another example of the 8th century chroniclers using terms common to their own time to describe era transitions in the past.
But why am I going on about obscure references about regnal dates in an era that was probably all oral history, anyway? Let’s get to the good stuff, shall we?
And by good stuff, I mean the sex and fighting, right?
Well, this episode that will mean mostly fighting—though there is some sex as well. Honestly, there is enough to do an entire episode just on Oho Tarashi’s marriage conquests - we have at least 14 different women with whom he had children scattered across the various records, and supposedly something like 80 kids. There is just a lot to get through with Kyushu alone. But for right now we will focus on the fighting part of things.
After sealing a possible marriage with the people of Owari, around modern day Nagoya, Oho Tarashi came back to Yamato and set up a new palace at Makimuku, the same region as his predecessors. No sooner had he done so, however, but word came in that the Kumaso, over in Kyushu, had rebelled.
So we’ve talked about one group of people down in Kyushu, the Hayato, who were said to be descended from the elder brother of Hiko Hohodemi—see episode 23 for that whole story—but we’ve only really mentioned the Kumaso once or twice. They appear to have been another ethnicity in the islands—possibly even related to the Hayato, but just as likely that they were entirely different. It is unclear who they were, though the “Land of the Kumaso” generally seems to refer to the land of Hyuuga, also known as Himuka, which is where Ninigi no Mikoto, ancestor of the royal line, is also said to have first landed, on the southeast quadrant of Kyushu. Some have suggested that they were actually two peoples, the Kuma and the So. Others have suggested that “Kuma” specifically refers to “bear”, and even make a connection to the Bear Worship of the Ainu and suggest that there may be a connection to pre-Yayoi beliefs.
Still others note the continued use of “Kuma”, even today. Kumamoto in Kyushu, for example, and the Kuma district, which is noted as having a distinct dialect of Japanese, though not so much as to be called a separate language like Ryukyuan or even the Hachijo dialects. They appear to be referred to in texts up to the Nara period, lending some credence as to their existence as more than just southwestern bogeymen of the Yamato court—but then again, the Fudoki are also replete with stories of the Tsuchigumo, or Earth Spider, people, so you may want to take this all with a grain of salt.
Regardless, the Kumaso were clearly a people set apart from Yamato and their allies. They are portrayed as subjects—after all, the narrative is that all of the Japanese archipelago was under the Divine authority granted to the Heavenly Descendant and his progeny—but they are typically shown as rebellious, thus requiring the sovereign to chastise them.
Of course, I think by now we can easily see that this is little more than a polite fiction. There is no evidence of any kind of extensive control of the archipelago at this time, let alone Kyushu. The court isn’t punishing rebellious subjects, but rather it is taking military action against people that it finds to be counter to its own interests. If the ensuing campaign, as described in the Chronicles, is at all based on reality, I would suggest that this was part of a military push by Yamato to gain more complete control over the islands—particularly the pathways to the mainland, still the source for so much that the archipelago themselves could not easily produce domestically.
Interestingly, this Yamato dominance may have had something to do with the technological advantage of iron armor imported from the mainland: because in the early 4th century we start to see examples of early iron armor in the archipelago. Previously, armor had been made of wood or other organic materials, and surviving examples vary between extremely simplistic designs of hanging plates to elaborately carved wooden cuirasses that may have had as much, or more, of a ceremonial function—it certainly is more than is strictly needed for the purpose of protection on the battlefield.
Wood armor is all well and good, but wood has its disadvantages, including its weight. Pound for pound, wood is not as strong as metal, and so you need more of it and larger pieces. Iron armor, on the other hand, can be made with relatively thin plates, greatly reducing weight and also allowing for protection over more of the body.
From what we can tell, the early iron cuirasses that appear in the archipelago likely came from the mainland—specifically from the Kara, or Gaya, region. These were solid armors of vertical plates, which seem to have been laced together with leather thongs—I’ll have an example in the podcast page. The early versions found in the archipelago seem to be exactly like the ones found in Kara, leading to the conclusion that they were likely imports, though it is possible that they were manufactured locally—it is hard to tell. Surviving armor generally was passed down to us, today, as grave goods, and there are still a lot of questions, including just how widespread armor was on the ancient battlefield. Iron was, itself, a precious commodity, and no doubt an entire cuirass of iron was, at least early on, only available to the most elite warriors. Even the rivets, at this point, were made of leather.
Now, I’m aware of no records of just what, exactly, a warband of the time would have looked like in the early 4th century. I suspect that some were armored in iron, while others may have had armor of wood or similar, and still other warriors may have had no armor at all. There do seem to be a plethora of iron weapons, such as swords and the like, so maybe there was more armor than I’m giving credit for. Still, in an age where there is still no definitive evidence of iron manufacturing—that is, smelting iron from raw iron ore—in the archipelago, it must have been really prestigious to have iron armor, whether imported or made from imported raw materials. Moreover, to see a band of warriors in iron armor must have been quite a sight for the time.
Horses still seem to be a ways off in the historical record, so these warbands likely traveled on foot. This would mean crossing overland along footpaths and trails, or else taking long, slender boats, putting me in mind of the large canoes of Polynesia and the Pacific Northwest. I can easily imagine them, plying the waves, their iron cuirasses and helmets lacquered black to protect against the elements, possibly sporting a young sapling or similar decoration on the bow.
Now as I said, the Chronicles claim that the Kumaso were in “rebellion”—which implied they had previously been under Yamato’s authority, otherwise what were they rebelling against? There is no real evidence outside of the chronicles for any kind of subordinate relationship between Yamato and the other groups on the islands—alliances and cultural sharing, yes, but still no sign of a Japanese “state” as such. So then, assuming these assaults did occur, it must have been for some other reason. Perhaps to secure trade routes or other alliances.
There’s also always the possibility that these conflicts had nothing to do with Yamato, and that it was some other conflict between other groups that was later attributed to Yamato to help explain their hegemony over the archipelago.
But enough dithering about, let’s take a look at what the Chronicles—or at least the Nihon Shoki and the various Fudoki—have to say about this campaign.
So when the sovereign, Oho Tarashi Hiko, decided to head west to punish the Kumaso, he gathered up his forces and headed to Saba, in the country of Suou. This was probably in the area of the Saba River in Houfu City, in modern day Yamaguchi Prefecture. I mean, come on, the modern city’s name basically reads as “Suou Government Seat”, and indeed it apparently was the capital of the old province of Suou—and likely would have held a similar role even earlier, back in the early 4th century. There are certainly plenty of kofun clusters in and around the area. So it might make sense for Oho Tarashi Hiko to stop there, especially if they had some kind of alliance with Yamato, to regroup and plan for the campaign before heading into Kyushu.
Oho Tarashi is said to have looked south from Saba, and claimed to see smoke billowing up, indicating the presence of bandits. Now, first off, this would have meant meant looking out over more than 20 miles of ocean in the Seto Inland Sea down to Kyushu, and then picking out smoke in the sky over the distant mountains, which is certainly possible—signal smoke can be visible for at least 50 miles, and if it is a settlement of any size, one imagines it would have been the smoke from several fires. Still, while I’m sure smoke was a good indication of people and a settlement, in what way does it specifically indicate “bandits”—unless, of course, you are an invading foreign power, in which case they are probably all “bandits”, i.e. “enemies”, until proven otherwise.
And so Oho Tarashi dispatched some men to go scout out the region. One presumes they set out with a small force while Oho Tarashi continued to take advantage of his hosts in the country of Suou. This must not have been a stealth mission, though, because the chieftain of that far country—likely the country of Toyo—took to the water in a ship of her own to come out and meet the Yamato forces. We are told that she—and, yes, this chieftain, we are told, was, specifically, a woman—had a branch of hard wood that had been taken from Mt. Shitsu, on the northern coast of Kyushu, and placed it at the bow of her ship, placing on it a sword, a mirror, and a jewel—similar to the three items of the royal regalia, and reminiscent of the tree that had been set up to lure Amaterasu out of the Heavenly Rock Cave. In addition, she also raised up a white flag—apparently even in ancient Japan, that was a sign of truce. This chieftain’s name, we are told, was Kamuhashi Hime, and she was the ruler of her country. She told the Yamato forces that she and her people were not in rebellion—which could be taken as a sign of submission—but there were some brigands in the area apparently causing trouble. These were Hanatari, who was camped out at the headwaters of the Usa River; Mimitarai, who was up at the headwaters of Mi-ke; Asahagi, at the head of the Takawa, and Tsuchiwori-Wiwori, who was hiding out at the headwaters of Midorino. According to Kamuhashi, these four and their followers were causing mischief, each one declaring himself and his relations chieftains, and Hanatari himself had assumed an unauthorized title—we aren’t told which, but do you remember how, in the last reign, someone was calling themselves King of the Wa and suggesting that Korean vessels stop at their country and go no farther? Well, I suspect we may have a similar situation.
And of course, who is to say whether or not these were “unauthorized” claims or not? They may all have been just as “legitimate” as our protagonist, Oho Tarashi, but they were on the wrong side of our current narrative.
So hearing all this from Kamuhashi Hime, one of the Yamato advance scouts, Take Morogi, came up with a plan. He invited one of the four, Asahagi, to come see him and enticed him with the promise of various presents, and encouraged him to bring his friends. Sure enough, all four of these local leaders and their followers came to see what it was that these Yamato envoys had to offer. There was talk of red trousers, and other such things; and I guess for some reason, red trousers were a thing? But of course, this was one of the oldest tricks in the book—like offering fugitive criminals a free cruise. And just like with the free cruise, as soon as they showed up, they were taken prisoner and subdued. Perhaps not the most “honorable” means of defeating one’s enemies, but certainly practical.
With those four groups subdued, it must have been deemed safe to bring the big guns, because the advance force sent a message to Oho Tarashi, presumably still hanging out in Suou, and he sailed down, landing at Nagao in the country of Toyo—possibly in the area of modern Yukuhashi city. This was apparently the capital of that country, the seat of Kamuhashi Hime. Did she welcome Oho Tarashi Hiko as a fellow sovereign to her lands? Or was she coerced by his military might? We aren’t really told, but this seems to have become the beachhead for the rest of their campaign.
From Nagao they marched onto the country of Ohokida, modernly known as Ohoita prefecture, and came to the village of Hayami, which might have been the area of Hayami district on the north of Beppu Bay. It was there that they met another chieftain, Haya tsu Hime.
Haya tsu Hime met with Oho Tarashi’s men and reported that there were two “Tsuchigumo”—the Earth-Spider people—living in a place called “The Rat’s Cave”, but it isn’t entirely clear. These Tsuchigumo were known simply as Awo and Shiro—Blue and White. Hayatsu Hime also told him about three others in Negino, in the district of Nawori, named Uchizaru, Yata, and Kunimaro. All five of these men were said to be quite large and strong, with numerous followers, apparently in the western regions of modern Oita Prefecture.
This account is confirmed in the Bungo Fudoki—or at least that Fudoki used the same sources—which said said that after leaving Saba, Oho Tarashi and his men traveled to Miyaura in the Ama District, which is where he met Hayatsu Hime, who told him about all five of these Tsuchigumo. Oho Tarashi thought about what he would do, and he had his men stop at Kutami, where they built a giant muro or pit building which they could use as their council chambers while plotting their next move. Oho Tarashi had his men cut down camellia trees to make mallets as their weapons, and they then used these to attack the two Tsuchikumo living in the caves, defeating them near the headwaters of Inaba.
I’m not really sure what the mallets were all about, but since the Tsuchigumo are implied to have lived underground—these ones specifically, it also feels like they were playing some kind of giant and violent game of whack-a-mole. Of course, the description of the aftermath was much more gruesome, with claims that there was so much blood it soaked the soldiers’ feet up to their ankles, and they called that area the Blood Fields—Chida—because of the gory aftermath.
But they weren’t done yet—there still was more. After defeating Awo and Shiro in their caves, the army crossed Mt. Negi, seeking Uchizaru, but they stopped when they came under heavy attack from multiple sides, caught in what appears to be a cross-fire ambush of some kind. This caused Oho Tarashi to pull his men back to figure out what to do next. And of course, what else do you do when you have a big decision to make and aren’t sure what is best? That’s right! He pulled out the magic eight-ball of the Kofun era: Divination.
And so, armed with this occult intelligence, Oho Tarashi decided that they should maneuver around Uchizaru, and first attack one of the other Tsuchigumo, Yata. The Yamato forces descended on the moor of Negino and defeated Yata and his forces. This unnerved Uchizaru, who was losing allies left and right, and so he attempted to submit, hoping that he and his men would be spared, but Oho Tarashi Hiko was having none of it, and he refused Uchizaru’s submission. And so Uchizaru and his men—including, one assumes, the last Tsuchigumo leader, Kunimaro—decided that it would be better to die than to fall into their enemies’ hands, and they threw themselves into a ravine, where they perished.
There follows a story about Oho Tarashi Hiko kicking a giant stone into the air as though it was a leaf on the wind as part of an oath that he would destroy the Tsuchigumo, though, since he had just done that, it seems a bit out of order. It also goes into the three deities that he prayed to, I guess attributing his victory to them. We may come back to this, but for now it appears to have little relevance to our immediate story as we try to understand what might be going on.
Speaking of, what is going on here? Oho Tarashi Hiko comes to take on the Kumaso, but first has to fight off bandits, and *then* fights off Tsuchigumo? That seems rather out of place—though they were on his way to the land of the Kumaso, so I guess there is that.
If I try to look beyond the narrative of the Yamato court, I could see it a little differently. For instance, from Saba, he sends out an advance team who meets the titular ruler of the land of Toyo—or at least that part later known as Buzen—Kamuhashi Hime. Yamato and Toyo come to an agreement and they offer military aid in securing control of the nearby territory. This then repeats itself to the south, in the land of Ohoita, where they meet with Haya tsu Hime. While Haya tsu Hime is only credited with running a village—or mura—she may have been an ally similar to Kamuhashi Hime, but her problem seems to have been with people living in the interior part of the island, up in the mountain valleys, and again Yamato forces lend their aid, possibly in return for an alliance. In this light, it is less simply conquest, and more like consolidating alliances with various groups and helping to ensure that they would be in positions to be useful to Yamato—such as allowing trade through the straits, and protecting the sea lanes of the Seto Inland Sea—after all, most of these allies are coastal, while their enemies appear to be up at the headwaters—that is, up in the mountains. Conflicts, then, between coastal and interior polities.
And I can’t pass by without also commenting on the fact that the two allied leaders, so far, are both women. Women who are in charge of settlements, communities, and even entire countries.
Having secured the countries of the Northern Toyo and Ohoita—which would later be part of Toyo before the two were split into Buzen and Bungo in the 7th century—Oho Tarashi Hiko and his men continued south in their pursuit of the Kumaso, coming to Himuka—aka Hyuuga—the land where Ninigi no Mikoto himself is said to have descended to earth. They set up a residence—specifically a “traveling palace”, which seemed to be the norm in their journeys—in a place called Takaya, believed to be the location of modern Takaya Shrine, in Saito city, Miyazaki. Saito city itself has an impressive number of kofun—a collection of over 300 in the western plain, built between the 3rd and 7th centuries, known as the Saitobaru Kofungun. It even includes two large tombs that are identified by the Imperial Household Agency as the tombs of the mythical Ninigi no Mikoto and his wife, Konohana Sakuya Hime. However, let’s face it, I am highly skeptical of any ancient Yamato ancestors in this area, and figure that was a later addition to the lineage. Still, a somewhat intriguing connection.
Keeping his men at Takaya, Oho Tarashi Hiko consulted with his generals on just how they would approach this next task. From what they knew, the Kumaso led by two men, known as Atsu-Kaya and Sa-Kaya. Between the two of them they had at least 80 warriors, or “Braves”—Kumaso-takeru. That may not sound like much in modern terms, but it was likely quite the warband for the time, especially given how far the Yamato forces were from their home base.
Oho Tarashi Hiko wanted to try to get through this as best he could without fighting, if at all possible. One of his ministers proffered a rather radical suggestion. It seems that one of the Kumaso braves had two daughters, Ichi Fukuya and Ichi Kaya. What if the Yamato sovereign were to offer presents and let them know he was seeking marriage. Using this ruse, they could infiltrate the Kumaso, get to know their strengths, and attack them when they were least expecting it. Oho Tarashi liked this plan and so it was put into motion.
The two Kumaso women were lured into this Yamato version of the Bachelor, and Oho Tarashi immediately made love to Ichi Fukaya, who apparently fell for him something hard. She suggested that she could get the Kumaso to submit—she would just need a couple of soldiers to accompany her back home.
And so, she brought the soldiers back to her father’s house, and she got her father so drunk on wine that he passed out. Then she cut his bowstring, so he couldn’t defend himself, and called in the Yamato soldiers, who killed him straight away.
This had the desired effect—the Kumaso were apparently subdued quickly after that, though the details beyond that one incident are obscured.
As for Ichi Fukaya, what happened to her? Well, if she thought that the Yamato forces would reward her for her actions she was sadly mistaken. Rather than being pleased with her ruthless act of loyalty, Oho Tarashi Hiko was disgusted. After all, how could she so easily participate in the murder of her own father? And if she was willing to do that, what else would she do? What loyalty could he really count on? No, Ichi Fukaya’s reward for betraying her father and, indeed, all of her people, was death. Her sister, Ichi Kaya, on the other hand, was given to the chieftain of the country of Ki, south of Yamato.
With the Kumaso subdued, Oho Tarashi found the land of Himuka rather peaceful, and he stayed there with his court for six years, we are told. He even took a local bride, Miwakashi Hime, and together they had a son—Toyokuni Wake no Miko, or the Royal Prince, Lord of the country of Toyo, who was, in turn, the ancestor of the chieftain of the country of Himuka—later Hyuuga.
Of course, what they don’t mention in this are all the little details. One big logistical question that I’m going to explore a bit is, if Oho Tarashi was spending all this time outside of Yamato, then who was tending to the court rituals? Were they performing the Niinamesai and other such rituals at Takaya, or was there a stand-in back in Miwa that was doing all of this for them? How many court members were with him and who was “minding the store”, so to speak, back home? I mean, while six years doesn’t exactly hold a candle to some monarch’s absences—I’m looking at you Richard the Lionheart—they at least had regents and robust systems in place to manage things while they were gone. What did Oho Tarashi have?
In fact, later on in his reign, back in Yamato, Oho Tarashi Hiko would hold a feast for his ministers, which lasted several days. During the feast, his son and eventual successor Waka Tarashi Hiko, as well as a trusted minister, Takechi Sukune, were conspicuously absent. When Oho Tarashi tracked them down and asked why they were keeping themselves apart, they explained that somebody had to be guarding against the crazies. What would happen if, while everyone was drunk and incapacitated, some madmen were to take the palace? So they were keeping watch.
If things were so bad they couldn’t leave the store without a minder for several days, what made them so confident they could be gone for six years?
And while Himuka isn’t the Holy Land—they were still within a few weeks boat ride back to Yamato—faster if it was an emergency, I have to wonder about much of this. Several theories come to mind that could explain what was going on.
First, perhaps this is a good example of the co-ruler idea, where one ruler focused on the rituals at home while the other handled military matters, such that one might go on an expedition and still leave a functioning administration—such as it was—back home.
Second, there is always the possibility that Oho Tarashi Hiko was not the ruler when he went on campaign, but perhaps simply a prince, and without context the story of his expedition against the Kumaso just became part of his reign, since we don’t tend to get much of the sovereigns lives outside of their reigns.
Then there is the possibility he was never there at all. That it was some other general leading the armies. Of course, that always brings its own set of potential problems, even if we are only talking about warbands, moreso than large groups of armed forces.
Of course, there may have been a regent left back in Yamato that we just don’t hear about. After all, this isn’t about them, or even about the state—it is about the royal line.
And then the whole thing about 6 years may have been nothing more than an exaggeration as well. Or perhaps, rather than sitting there in comfort, the wars with the Kumaso actually did drag on. Maybe the story we aren’t seeing is of supply lines all the way back to Yamato supplying men and goods while they fought with their allies against an entrenched opponent who would not go quietly. But a military quagmire is not the epic narrative that anyone wants to read about—least of all the royal descendants.
Then, finally, there is the outside possibility that Oho Tarashi wasn’t originally from Yamato at all, but that he was actually a ruler in Kyushu, or at least in Western Japan. That could explain the sudden change from two sovereigns named “Iribiko” to several sovereigns styled Tarashi—Tarashi the Elder—Oho Tarashi—and his son and eventual successor, Tarashi the Younger—Waka Tarashi—followed by Tarashi Nakatsu Hiko, who is also known for his campaigns in Kyushu.
Who knows the truth, but this definitely seems to be the first time that the territories in Kyushu really are shown entering the Yamato sphere, so I still find it an important story.
Now after six years, Oho Tarashi Hiko decided to pack it in and head back home, but not before finishing a circuit of Kyushu. And so they crossed overland, through what is believed to be the territory of the Kumaso. As they neared what is believed to be the modern sight of Kobayashi, they saw a group gathered at the banks of the Iwase River. Cautiously—after all, they were basically in a foreign land—Oho Tarashi Hiko sent two of his retinue ahead. These were Hinamori the Elder and Hinamori the Younger. Hinamori the Younger brought back word that everything was good—the crowd gathered there was summoned by the local lord, Izumi Hime, the lord of Murokata, which would seem to indicate she was the local ruler of the area around modern Kirishima up to the Iwase River. Interestingly, the Nihon Shoki specifically calls this area “Hinamori”, and there is a local peak known, today, as Hinamori Dake. You may also have a vague memory of Hinamori from the days of Himiko—it was the title given for the deputy governors in Tsushima, Iki, Ito, Na, and Fumi—basically all of the states mentioned in the Weizhi between the Korean Peninsula up through Kyushu. Whether or not this Hinamori was at all related, who knows, but it is an interesting connection.
By the way, if you go to Kobayashi, today, they have a stone where they said Oho Tarashi took his ease, presumably during the feast. Of course, how one would even prove such a thing I have no idea, but it is yet another connection in the minds of the people between that place and this story.
Continuing on their way, the Yamato forces arrived at the district of Kuma, and they summoned the princes of Kuma: Kuma tsu Hiko the Elder and Kuma tsu Hiko the younger. As is so often seen in these stories—so much so that it is almost cliché—only one of them accepted the invitation. In this case it was Kuma tsu Hiko the Elder. And so Oho Tarashi Hiko sent his forces to kill Kuma tsu Hiko the Younger.
The district of Kuma was quite possibly the heart of Kumaso territory—or at least the heart of the Kuma of the Kuma and So. Indeed, they were probably moving north towards the Kuma river and modern Kumamoto Prefecture, possibly through the area of Hitoyoshi, and perhaps nearby Kuma-mura. They didn’t keep to the mountains, though. They eventually made it to the Yatsushiro Sea, along the southwest edge of modern Kumamoto prefecture. There they acquired or built boats—the Chronicles doesn’t specify which—and took to the water.
We are told they stopped for a meal at an island at near Ashikita, and then headed north. The Hizen Fudoki records that they left Ashikita from Hinagare no Ura, specifically, and both the Fudoki and the Nihon Shoki mention that as they were on the water, the sun started to go down. Now of course, traveling in the dark was never ideal back in ancient times, when torches and the like were your best source of illumination, but I can only imagine what it must have been like to realize they were going to be caught in the dark in an unknown area. The men on the ships would have scanned the shores for any sign of village or settlement where they could pull in and take advantage of the local hospitality, but they saw nothing until dusk began to settle in. Suddenly, Oho Tarashi Hiko glimpsed a light up in the sky, and told the pilot to steer in that direction. Following that light, like the magi following the Christmas star, they made their way safely to land. Sure enough, they found a village, but nobody there knew what the light could have been that they had seen. Awed by this, Oho Tarashi assumed that it must have been a fire set by the kami to help guide him and his men to safety. According to the Nihon Shoki, this was Toyo Mura, the Bountiful Village, in the land of Yatsushiro. The Hizen Fudoki provides it a more romantic name, however: Hi no Mura, or the Fire Village, and likewise attributes this story to why the entire country was called Hi no Kuni—though given the Wa and their penchant for the sun, it is just as likely that it was named to be the “Country of the Sun”.
Departing Toyomura, they traveled on to Tamakina, in the district of Takaku, which is thought to be the area of modern Tamana city, northwest of modern Kumamoto city. There they were apparently not met with the warmest of welcomes, and we are told that the Yamato soldiers killed a Tsuchigumo named Tsudzura.
From Tamakina, they seem to have traveled east, back towards the center of the island. Traveling through the land, they apparently headed through Aso—the area around Mt. Aso, an active volcano in Kyushu on the border of modern Ohoita Prefecture.
From there they traveled to north Kyushu—Tsukushi—visiting numerous other places. I swear, just do a search of monuments in Kyushu and you’ll find a slew of what amounts to “Keiko Tenno slept here” (Keiko Tenno being Oho Tarashi Hiko’s posthumous name, of course) all over the place. The Nihon Shoki seems to take his route back up to Toyo no Kuni, including Mi-ke and the like, but the Hizen Fudoki puts him more in Yame, east of Chikugo, and Kurume, where there is mention of him in regards to staying in the “Kaura palace”. He is also said to have passed through Ukiha. The long and short of it is that it seems somewhat confused, and since all it would be is learning a bunch of different place names, I think we can leave it at that. There are some other stories that I skimmed or glossed over for time, and because they largely are focused more on the mythology than anything that would seem to connect us to an historical or geographical time period.
And with that, the Kyushu campaign was finished.
Well… mostly finished. There would be another round with Oho Tarashi’s son, Oho Usu no Mikoto, but that was not nearly as detailed and more directly dealing just with the Kumaso. But if we get into that, we may as well look at the rest of his story, and that will be an episode unto itself. So let’s save that for a future date.
As for this episode—whew, that was a lot. Many new faces popping up—the country of Suou in eastern Yamaguchi prefecture, and then the countries of Toyo and Ohoita—later Buzen and Bungo. And then Kuma and up to Tsukushi. It was quite the ride. Also, let’s not forget how many women we saw running things in the era before Confucian misogyny rolled into town and set up shop. Next episode we’ll look at the rest of the military campaigns in this reign and that legendary figure, Yamato Takeru.
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That’s all for now. Thank you again, and I’ll see you next episode on Sengoku Daimyo’s Chronicles of Japan.
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